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HYDROMETALLURGY

Hydrometallurgy is a method for obtaining metals from their ores. It is a technique within the field of extractive metallurgy involving the use of aqueous chemistry for the recovery of metals from ores, concentrates, and recycled or residual materials.
Hydrometallurgy is typically divided into three general areas:

• Leaching
• Solution concentration and purification
• Metal or metal compound recovery

Leaching

Leaching involves the use of aqueous solutions to extract metal from metal bearing materials which is brought into contact with a material containing a valuable metal. The lixiviant solution conditions vary in terms of pH, oxidation-reduction potential, presence of chelating agents and temperature, to optimize the rate, extent and selectivity of dissolution of the desired metal component into the aqueous phase. Through the use of chelating agents, one can selectively extract certain metals. Such chelating agents are typically amines of schiff bases.

Metal Recovery

Metal recovery is the final step in a hydrometallurgical process. Metals suitable for sale as raw materials are often directly produced in the metal recovery step. Sometimes, however, further refining is required if ultra-high purity metals are to be produced. The primary types of metal recovery processes are electrolysis, gaseous reduction, and precipitation. For example, a major target of hydrometallurgy is copper, which is conveniently obtained by electrolysis. Cu²⁺ ions reduce at mild potentials, leaving behind other contaminating metals such as Fe²⁺ and Zn²⁺.

Solution concentration and purification

After leaching, the leach liquor must normally undergo concentration of the metal ions that are to be recovered. Additionally, undesirable metal ions sometimes require removal.^[1]

• Precipitation is the selective removal of a compound of the targeted metal or removal of a major impurity by precipitation of one of its compounds. Copper is precipitated as its sulfide as a means to purify nickel leachates.
• Cementation is the conversion of the metal ion to the metal by a redox reaction. A typical application involves addition of scrap iron to a solution of copper ions. Iron dissolves and copper metal is deposited.
• Solvent Extraction
• Ion Exchange
• Gas reduction. Treating a solution of nickel and ammonia with hydrogen affords nickel metal as its powder.
• Electrowinning is a particularly selective if expensive electrolysis process applied to the isolation of precious metals. Gold can be electroplated from its solutions.

 HYDROMETALLURGY OF COPPER

CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT

FOR ROLL NO. 4980-4991

 Diborane

Diborane is the chemical compound consisting of boron and hydrogen with the formula B₂H₆. It is a colorless and highly unstable gas at room temperature with a repulsively sweet odor. Diborane mixes well with air, easily forming explosive mixtures. Diborane will ignite spontaneously in moist air at room temperature. Synonyms include boroethane, boron hydride, and diboron hexahydride.
Diborane is a key boron compound with a variety of applications. The compound is classified as "endothermic", meaning that its heat of formation, ΔH°_f is positive (36 kJ/mol). Despite a high thermodynamic instability, diborane is surprisingly nonreactive for kinetic reasons, and it is known to take part in an extensive range of chemical transformations, many of them entailing loss of dihydrogen.

SYNTHESIS OF DIBORANE

Extensive studies of diborane have led to the development of multiple syntheses. Most preparations entail reactions of hydride donors with boron halides or alkoxides. The industrial synthesis of diborane involves the reduction of BF₃ by sodium hydride, lithium hydride or lithium aluminium hydride:^[8]

8 BF₃ + 6 LiH → B₂H₆ + 6 LiBF₄

Two laboratory methods start from boron trichloride with lithium aluminium hydride or from boron trifluoride ether solution with sodium borohydride. Both methods result in as much as 30% yield:

4 BCl₃ + 3 LiAlH₄ → 2 B₂H₆ + 3 LiAlCl₄

4 BF₃ + 3 NaBH₄ → 2 B₂H₆ + 3 NaBF₄

Older methods entail the direct reaction of borohydride salts with a non-oxidizing acid, such as phosphoric acid or dilute sulfuric acid.

2 BH₄⁻ + 2 H⁺ → 2 H₂ + B₂H₆

Similarly, oxidation of borohydride salts has been demonstrated and remains convenient for small scale preparations. For example, using iodine as an oxidizer:

2 NaBH
4 + I
2 → 2 NaI + B
2H
6 + H
2

Another small-scale synthesis uses potassium hydroborate and phosphoric acid as starting materials.

Structure and bonding

Diborane adopts a D_2h structure containing four terminal and two bridging hydrogen atoms. The model determined by molecular orbital theory indicates that the bonds between boron and the terminal hydrogen atoms are conventional 2-center, 2-electron covalent bonds. The bonding between the boron atoms and the bridging hydrogen atoms is, however, different from that in molecules such as hydrocarbons. Having used two electrons in bonding to the terminal hydrogen atoms, each boron has one valence electron remaining for additional bonding. The bridging hydrogen atoms provide one electron each. Thus the B₂H₂ ring is held together by four electrons, an example of 3-center 2-electron bonding. This type of bond is sometimes called a 'banana bond'. The lengths of the B-H_bridge bonds and the B-H_terminal bonds are 1.33 and 1.19 Å respectively, and this difference in the lengths of these bonds reflects the difference in their strengths, the B-H_bridge bonds being relatively weaker. The weakness of the B-H_bridge vs B-H_terminal bonds is indicated by their vibrational signatures in the infrared spectrum, being ~2100 and 2500 cm⁻¹, respectively. The structure is isoelectronic with C₂H₆²⁺, which would arise from the diprotonation of the planar molecule ethene. Diborane is one of many compounds with such unusual bonding.
Of the other elements in Group IIIA, gallium is known to form a similar compound, digallane, Ga₂H₆. Aluminium forms a polymeric hydride, (AlH₃)_n, although unstable Al₂H₆ has been isolated in solid hydrogen and is isostructural with diborane.


VIKAS BHATI


NOTES ON GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY

CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT 
ROLL NO. 4940-4955

 ALLOTROPHY

Allotropy  is the property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more different forms, in the same physical state, known as allotropes of these elements. Allotropes are different structural modifications of an element;^[1] the atoms of the element are bonded together in a different manner. For example, the allotropes of carbon include diamond (where the carbon atoms are bonded together in a tetrahedral lattice arrangement), graphite (where the carbon atoms are bonded together in sheets of a hexagonal lattice), graphene (single sheets of graphite), and fullerenes (where the carbon atoms are bonded together in spherical, tubular, or ellipsoidal formations). The term allotropy is used for elements only, not for compounds

ALLOTROPHS OF CARBON

1. Diamond – an extremely hard, transparent crystal, with the carbon atoms arranged in a tetrahedral lattice. A poor electrical conductor. An excellent thermal conductor.
2. Lonsdaleite – also called hexagonal diamond.
3. Q-carbon – a ferromagnetic, tough, and brilliant crystal structure that is harder and brighter than diamonds.
4. Graphite – a soft, black, flaky solid, a moderate electrical conductor. The C atoms are bonded in flat hexagonal lattices (graphene), which are then layered in sheets.
5. Linear acetylenic carbon (Carbyne)
6. Amorphous carbon
7. Fullerenes, including Buckminsterfullerene, a.k.a. "buckyballs", such as C₆₀.
8. Carbon nanotubes – allotropes of carbon with a cylindrical nanostructure

FULLERENE

These are small molecules of carbon in which the giant structure is closed over into spheres of atoms (bucky balls) or tubes (sometimes caled nano-tubes). The smallest fullerene has 60 carbon atoms arranged in pentagons and hexagons like a football. This is called Buckminsterfullerene.
The name 'buckminster fullerene' comes from the inventor of the geodhesic dome (Richard Buckminster Fuller) which has a similar structure to a fullerene. Fullerenes were first isolated from the soot of chimineys and extracted from solvents as red crystals.
The bonding has delocalised pi molecular orbitals extending throughout the structure and the carbon atoms are a mixture of sp2 and sp3 hybridised systems.
Fullerenes are insoluble in water but soluble in methyl benzene. They are non- conductors as the individual molecules are only held to each other by weak van der Waal's forces.

Structure As the molecule is totally symmetrical with all bond lengths and angles being equal, it is likely/inevitable that the hybridisation of the carbon atoms is somewhere between that of sp2 and sp3. Another example of a theory (hybridisation in this case) having to be modified to accomodate the observed experimental data.

Property	Explanation	Fullerene structure
Soft and slippery	Few covalent bonds holding the molecules together but only weak Vander Waals forces between molecules.	Click on the image with the left mouse button and drag to get a different view. (if you can't see the image you have to download chime)
Brittle	Soft weak crystals typical of covalent substances
Electrical insulator	No movement of electrons available from one molecule to the next. The exception could be the formation of nano-tubes that are capable of conducting electricity along their length. These are the subject of some experiments in micro electronics
Insoluble in water.	There are only very weak Van der Waal's attractions between the carbon atoms and the water molecules whereas the carbon atoms are bonded very tightly to one another in the molecules.
Low m.p. solids	Typical of covalent crystals where only Van der Waal's interactions have to be broken for melting.

^{ALLOTROPHY IN SULPHUR}

^{The allotropes of sulfur refers to the many allotropes of the element sulfur. In terms of large number of allotropes, sulfur is second only to carbon.[1] In addition to the allotropes, each allotrope often exists in polymorphs, delineated by Greek prefixes (α, β, etc.).}

1. Rhombic Sulphur:

It is an allotropic form of sulphur which is stable below 96 one molecule of rhombic sulphur contains 8-atoms i-e 8_g. The crystal of rhombic sulphur has octahedral structure.

 Properties:

• It is consist of pale yellow crystals.
• It melts at 110℃.
• It is insoluble in water and soluble in carbon disulphide.
• It is stable at room temperature.
• Its specific gravity is 208g/cm3.

2. Monoclinic Sulphur:

It is the allotropic form of sulphur which is stable between 96 to 119 a molecule of monoclinic sulphur consists of eight sulphur atoms i-e 8g, but is different from rhombic sulphur in the arrangement of atoms.

Properties:

• It is stable from 96℃-119℃.
• Its melting point is 119℃.
• It is soluble in carbon disulphide.
• Its one molecule consist of 8 atoms.
• It is found as pale yellow needle shaped crystals.

3. Plastic Sulphur:

It is a non crystalline allotropic form of sulphur, it can be stretched like a rubber, it is unstable and changes into rhombic sulphur on slight heating even at room temperature it also changes.

4.Colloidal Sulphur

 

This type of sulphur is prepared by passing hydrogen sulphide through a cooled saturated solution of sulphur dioxide in water, or by adding a solution of sulphur and alcohol in water. Colloidal sulphur is soluble in carbon disulphide. It is used in medicine.

5.Milk of Sulphur

Milk of sulphur is prepared by the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on ammonium sulphide. Milk of sulphur is also prepared by boiling roll sulphur with an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide. The mixture is then filtered and dilute hydrochloric acid is added to the filtrate to get milk of sulphur.

Milk of sulphur is non-crystalline and white in color.

 ALLOTROPHS OF PHOSPHORUS

Elemental phosphorus can exist in several allotropes, the most common of which are white and red solids. Solid violet and black allotropes are also known. Gaseous phosphorus exists as diphosphorus and atomic phosphorus

White phosphorus

White phosphorus, yellow phosphorus or simply tetraphosphorus (P₄) exists as molecules made up of four atoms in a tetrahedral structure. The tetrahedral arrangement results in ring strain and instability. The molecule is described as consisting of six single P–P bonds. Two different crystalline forms are known. The α form, which is stable under standard conditions, has a body-centered cubic crystal structure. It transforms reversibly into the β form at 195.2 K. The β form is believed to have a hexagonal crystal structure.

Red phosphorus

Red phosphorus may be formed by heating white phosphorus to 300 °C (482 °F) in the absence of air or by exposing white phosphorus to sunlight. Red phosphorus exists as an amorphous network. Upon further heating, the amorphous red phosphorus crystallizes. Red phosphorus does not ignite in air at temperatures below 240 °C, whereas pieces of white phosphorus ignite at about 30 °C. Ignition is spontaneous at room temperature with finely divided material. Heating red phosphorus in the presence of moisture creates phosphine gas, which is both highly flammable and toxic

Black phosphorus 

Black phosphorus is the thermodynamically stable form of phosphorus at room temperature and pressure. It is obtained by heating white phosphorus under high pressures (12,000 atmospheres). In appearance, properties, and structure, black phosphorus is very much like graphite with both being black and flaky, a conductor of electricity, and having puckered sheets of linked atoms. Phonons, photons, and electrons in layered black phosphorus structures behave in a highly anisotropic manner within the plane of layers, exhibiting strong potential for applications to thin film electronics and infrared optoelectronics. Light absorption in black phosphorus is sensitive to the polarization of incident light, film thickness, and doping. Black phosphorus photo-transistors exhibit hyper-spectral detection attributes in the infrared and visible spectrum.
Black phosphorus has an orthorhombic structure and is the least reactive allotrope, a result of its lattice of interlinked six-membered rings where each atom is bonded to three other atoms.Black and red phosphorus can also take a cubic crystal lattice structure. A recent synthesis of black phosphorus using metal salts as catalysts has been reported.

Diphosphorus

The diphosphorus allotrope (P₂) can normally be obtained only under extreme conditions (for example, from P₄ at 1100 kelvin). In 2006, the diatomic molecule was generated in homogenous solution under normal conditions with the use of transition metal complexes (for example, tungsten and niobium).^[23]
Diphosphorus is the gaseous form of phosphorus, and the thermodynamically stable form between 1200 °C and 2000 °C.

THANKING YOU 

VIKAS BHATI

 

CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT

ROLL NO. 4929-4939

 Electronegativity: 

 The concept of electronegativity was first introduced by Linus Pauling in 1930 as a means of describing bond energies. 
1 When we consider the formation of a covalent bond the attraction of the two nuclei for the electrons is not the same and the electron pair is closer to one of the nuclei.

  2 This tendency of a atom in a molecule to attract the electron density towards itself (or the reluctance to release the electron density) is called electronegativity. 

 3 The electronegativity of a atom depends on the size, effective nuclear charge, oxidation state and the hybridization of the atom in the molecule. It therefore depends on the structure of the molecule and the atom. 

 4 If the size of the atom is small and it has almost closed shell electronic configuration the tendency to attract electrons increase and the atom is highly electronegative.  

 Variation of electronegativity

  1.Electronegativity increases from left to right in a period. 

 2 Electronegativity decreases down the group.   

Many scales of electronegativity have been proposed. One of the most commonly used   scale is the Pauling’s scale. 

 Pauling’s Electronegativity:

 For any covalent bond, the bond energy of the heteronuclear bond E(A-B) is greater than the bond energy of the sum of homonuclear bonds E(A-A) and E(B-B). This excess bond energy can be attributed to ionic contribution in the bonds. He treated this ionic contribution by the equation.
       E(A-B) = [E(A-A)×E(B-B)]1/2 + 96.48(ΧA - ΧB)2
E(A-B) is expressed in kJ mol-1  and ΧA - ΧB is  the difference in "electronegativity" between the two elements. The largest electronegativity difference exists between Cs and F. The value of F was set arbitrarily at 4.0and electronegativity values of all other elements found relative to it

 Allred and Rochow electronegativity:

 Allred and Rochow gave the electronegativity values by considering the electrostatic force exerted by effective nuclear charge, Zeff, on the valence electron. They gave the equation: XAR = (3590 x Zeff/r2cov) + 0.744 

 Mullikan electronegativity: Mullikan proposed that two energies associated with the atom i.e. the electron affinity EAv and the ionization potential IEv  should be a measure of electronegativity. The Mulliken electronegativity, ΧM is related to the electron affinity EAv and the ionization potential IEv by the equation:
ΧM = (IEv + EAv)/2
          The subscript v denotes a specific valence state.
          The Mulliken electronegativity ΧM can be expressed on the Pauling scale by the relationship given below if the values of IE and EA are in MJ mol-1:
ΧM = 3.48[((IEv + EAv)/2) - 0.602] 

BY

VIKAS BHATI

  C.B.C.S. SYLLABUS

CUT OFF 2013

CUT OFF 2014

CUT OFF 2015

 

 

 

 

 

Semester IV
Chemistry –IV/ Comp Sc –IV /Electronics-IV
Paper 13
CHPT-404:  Chemistry of s & p block elements, States of Matter and Phase Equilibrium
THEORY          Marks: 100
Section A: Inorganic Chemistry-2       (30 Lectures)
Unit I. General Principles of Metallurgy  Chief modes of occurrence of metals based on standard electrode potentials. Ellingham diagrams for reduction of metal oxides using carbon as reducing agent. Hydrometallurgy. Methods of purification of metals (Al, Pb, Ti, Fe, Cu, Ni, Zn): electrolytic, oxidative refining, Kroll process, Parting process, van Arkel-de Boer process and Mond’s process.      s- and p- Block Elements  Periodicity in s- and p- block elements, w.r.t. electronic configuration, atomic and ionic size, ionization enthalpy, electronegativity (Pauling, Mullikan, and Alred-Rochow scales). Allotropy in C, S, and P.  Oxidation states with reference to elements in unusual and rare oxidation states like carbides and nitrides), inert pair effect, diagonal relationship and anomalous behaviour of first member of each group.       Compounds of s- and p- Block Elements  Hydrides and their classification (ionic, covalent and interstitial), structure and properties with respect to stability of hydrides of p- block elements. Concept of multicentre bonding (diborane). Structure, bonding and their important properties like oxidation/reduction, acidic/basic nature of the following compounds and their applications in industrial, organic and environmental chemistry.  Hydrides of nitrogen (NH3, N2H4, N3H, NH2OH)  Oxoacids of P, S and Cl   Halides and oxohalides: PCl3, PCl5, SOCl2 and SO2Cl2   
Section B: Physical Chemistry-3      (30 Lectures)
Kinetic Theory of Gases Postulates of Kinetic Theory of Gases and derivation of the kinetic gas equation. Deviation of real gases from ideal behaviour, compressibility factor. Causes of deviation. van der Waals equation of state for real gases. Boyle temperature (derivation not required). Critical phenomena, critical constants and their calculation from van der Waals equation. Andrews isotherms of CO2.  
Maxwell Boltzmann distribution laws of molecular velocities and molecular energies (graphic representation – derivation not required) and their importance. Temperature dependence of these distributions. Most probable, average and root mean square velocities (no derivation). Collision cross section, collision number, collision frequency, collision diameter and mean free path of molecules. Viscosity of gases and effect of temperature and pressure on coefficient of viscosity (qualitative treatment only).
Liquids Surface tension and its determination using stalagmometer. Viscosity of a liquid and determination of
coefficient of viscosity using Ostwald viscometer. Effect of temperature on surface tension and coefficient of viscosity of a liquid (qualitative treatment only)
Solids Forms of solids. Symmetry elements, unit cells, crystal systems, Bravais lattice types and identification of lattice planes. Laws of Crystallography - Law of constancy of interfacial angles, Law of rational indices. Miller indices. X–Ray diffraction by crystals, Bragg’s law. Structures of NaCl, KCl and CsCl (qualitative treatment only). Defects in crystals. Glasses and liquid crystals.
Chemical Kinetics The concept of reaction rates. Effect of temperature, pressure, catalyst and other factors on reaction rates. Order and molecularity of a reaction. Derivation of integrated rate equations for zero, first and second order reactions (both for equal and unequal concentrations of reactants). Half–life of a reaction. General methods for determination of order of a reaction. Concept of activation energy and its calculation from Arrhenius equation.  Theories of Reaction Rates: Collision theory and Activated Complex theory of bimolecular reactions. Comparison of the two theories (qualitative treatment only).   
Suggested Readings 
Section A: 1. J. D. Lee : A new Concise Inorganic Chemistry, E L. B. S. 2. James E. Huheey, Ellen Keiter and Richard Keiter : Inorganic Chemistry: Principles of Structure and Reactivity, Pearson Publication.  
Section B: 1 Barrow, G. M. Physical Chemistry Tata McGraw-Hill (2007).  2. Castellan, G. W. Physical Chemistry 4th Ed. Narosa (2004).  3. Mahan, B. H. University Chemistry 3rd Ed. Narosa (1998).             

CHPP-404: Chemistry Laboratory       Marks: 50
Section A: Inorganic Chemistry 
Semi-micro qualitative analysis using H2S of mixtures not more than four ionic  species (two anions and two cations and excluding insoluble salts) out of the following:  
Cations :      NH4+, Pb2+, Ag+, Bi3+,  Cu2+, Cd2+, Sn2+,  Fe3+,  Al3+, Co2+, Cr3+, Ni2+, Mn2+, Zn2+, Ba2+, Sr2+,  Ca2+, K+, 
Anions :  CO32– , S2 –, SO32 –, S2O32 –, NO3–, CH3COO–, Cl–, Br–, I–, NO3–, SO42-, PO43-, BO33-, C2O42-, F-        (Spot tests should be carried out wherever feasible.)  
Section B: Physical Chemistry
1. Surface  tension  measurement  (use  of  organic  solvents  excluded)   
 a) Determination   of   the   surface   tension   of   a   liquid   or   a   dilute   solution  using   a   stalagmometer.       b) Study  of  the  variation  of  surface  tension  of  a  detergent  solution  with concentration.      
2. Viscosity  measurement  (use  of  organic  solvents  excluded)   
 a) Determination  of  the  relative  and  absolute  viscosity  of  a  liquid  or  dilute  solution  using   an  Ostwald’s  viscometer.     b) Study  of  the  variation  of  viscosity  of  an  aqueous  solution  with  concentration  of solute.      
3. Phase  equilibria     
 a) Construction  of  the  phase  diagram  of  a  binary  system  (simple  eutectic)  using  cooling   curves.     b) Determination  of  the  critical  solution  temperature  and  composition  of  the  phenol  water   system  and  study  of  the  effect  of  impurities  on  it.     c) Study   of   the   variation   of   mutual   solubility   temperature   with   concentration   for   the   phenol  water  system  and  determination  of  the  critical  solubility  temperature.    
Suggested Readings
1. Vogel’s Qualitative Inorganic Analysis, A.I. Vogel , Prentice Hall ,7th Edition. 2. Vogel’s Quantitative Chemical Analysis, A.I. Vogel , Prentice Hall ,6th Edition. 3. Senior Practical Physical Chemistry, B.D.Khosla, R. Chand & Co.   Semester IV
Paper 14
PHPT – 404  Electricity, Magnetism and Electromagnetic Theory
THEORY          Marks: 100
Electrostatics (Number of Lectures = 15) 
Electric Field:- Concept of electric field lines and electric flux, Gauss’s law (Integral and differential forms), application to linear, plane and spherical charge distributions. Conservative nature of electric field E, irrotational field. 
Electric Potential:- Concept of electric potential, relation between electric potential and electric field, potential energy of a system of charges. Energy density in an electric field. Calculation of potential from electric field for a spherical charge distribution.  
Magnetostatics (Number of Lectures = 20) 
Concept of magnetic field B and magnetic flux, Biot-Savart’s law, B due to a straight current carrying conductor. Force on a point charge in a magnetic field.  Properties of B, curl and divergence of B, solenoidal field.
Integral form of Ampere’s law, applications of Ampere’s law: field due to straight, circular and solenoidal currents. Energy stored in magnetic field. Magnetic energy in terms of current and inductance. Magnetic force between two current carrying conductors. Magnetic field intensity. 
Ballistic Galvanometer:- Torque on a current loop in a uniform magnetic field, working principle of  B.G., current and charge sensitivity, electromagnetic damping, critical damping resistance. 
Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic waves (Number of Lectures = 25) 
Faraday’s laws of induction (differential and integral form), Lenz’s law, self and mutual Induction.
Continuity equation, modification of Ampere’s law, displacement current, Maxwell’s equations in vacuum and dielectric medium, boundary conditions, plane wave equation: transverse nature of EM waves, velocity of light in vacuum and in medium, polarization, reflection and transmission. 
Polarization of EM waves, Brewster’s angle, description of linear, circular and elliptical polarization. 
Reference Books 
1. Fundamentals of electricity and magnetism By Arthur F. Kip (McGraw-Hill, 1968) 2. Electricity and magnetism by J.H.Fewkes & John Yarwood. Vol. I (Oxford Univ. Press, 1991). 3. Introduction to Electrodynamics, 3rd edition, by David J. Griffiths, (Benjamin          Cummings,1998). 4. Electricity and magnetism By Edward M. Purcell (McGraw-Hill Education, 1986) 5. Electricity and magnetism. By D C Tayal (Himalaya Publishing House,1988) 6. Electromagnetics by Joseph A.Edminister 2nd ed.(New Delhi: Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2006). 7.  
PHPP-404: PHYSICS LABORATORY      Marks: 50 
1. To verify the Thevenin, Norton, Superposition, and maximum power transfer theorem. 2. To determine a low resistance by Carey Foster’s bridge. 3. To determine the (a) current sensitivity, (b) charge sensitivity, and (c) CDR of a B.G.  4. To determine high resistance by leakage method. 5. To determine the ratio of two capacitances by De Sauty’s bridge. 6. To determine self inductance of a coil by Anderson’s bridge using AC. 7. To determine self inductance of a coil by Rayleigh’s method.  8. To determine coefficient of Mutual inductance by absolute method.  
Suggested Books for Reference 
1.
B. L. Worsnop and H. T. Flint, Advanced Practical Physics, Asia Publishing House, New Delhi.
2.
Indu Prakash and Ramakrishna, A Text Book of Practical Physics, Kitab Mahal, New Delhi.
3.
Nelson and Jon Ogborn, Practical Physics.              

Paper 15
MAPT-404:  Differential Equations
THEORY          Marks: 100 
Ordinary Differential equations 
First order exact differential equations. Integrating factors, rules to find and integrating factor. First order higher degree equations solvable for x,y,p=dy/dx. Methods for solving higher-order differential equations.  Basic theory of linear differential equations, Wronskian, and its properties. Solving an differential equation by reducing its order. Linear homogenous equations with constant coefficients. Linear non-homogenous equations. The method of variation of parameters, The Cauchy-Euler equation. Simultaneous differential equations, total differential equations. Applications of differential equations: the vibrations of a mass on a spring, mixture problem, free damped motion, forced motion, resonance phenomena, electric circuit problem, mechanics of simultaneous differential equations. 
 Partial Differential Equations 
Order and degree of partial differential equations. Concept of linear and non-linear partial differential equations. Formation of first order partial differential equations. Linear partial differential equation of first order, Lagrange’s method, Charpit’s method. Classification of second order partial differential equations into elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic throughillustrations only. Applications to Traffic Flow.Using Computer aided software for example, Matlab/ Mathematica/ Maple/ MuPadcharacteristics, vibrating string, vibrating membrane, conduction of heat in solids, gravitational potential, conservation laws 
Recommended Books 
1. Shepley L. Ross: Differential equations, Third edition, John Wiley and Sons, 1984
2. I. Sneddon: Elements of partial differential equations, McGraw-Hill, International Edition, 1967.          

Semester IV
Paper 16
LSPT 202 - BIOLOGY-2 
THEORY          Marks: 100
Cell and Cellular Processes
Unit 1. Techniques in Biology       (Ch 1 Sheeler)    (12 Periods)
Principles of microscopy; Light Microscope; Phase contrast microscopy; Fluorescence microscopy; Confocal microscopy; Sample Preparation for light microscopy; Electron microscopy (EM)- Scanning EM and Scanning Transmission EM (STEM); Sample Preparation for electron microscopy; X-ray diffraction analysis 
Unit 2. Cell as a unit of Life            (Ch 6 Campbell) (10 Periods)
The Cell Theory; Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells; Cell size and shape; Eukaryotic Cell components 
Unit 3. Cell Organelles     (Ch 15, 16, 17,18,19,20 Sheeler) (22 Periods) 
• Mitochondria:                                                                                    Structure, marker enzymes, composition; mitochondrial biogenesis; Semiautonomous organelle; Symbiont hypothesis; Proteins synthesized within mitochondria; mitochondrial DNA 
• Chloroplast                                                                                         Structure, marker enzymes, composition; semiautonomous nature, chloroplast DNA 
• ER, Golgi body & Lysosomes                                                           Structures and roles. Signal peptide hypothesis, N-linked glycosylation, Role of golgi in O-linked glycosylation. Cell secretion, Lysosome formation.  
• Peroxisomes and Glyoxisomes:                                                         Structures, composition, functions in animals and plants and biogenesis 
• Nucleus:                                                                                              Nuclear Envelope- structure of nuclear pore complex; chromatin; molecular organization, DNA packaging in eukaryotes, euchromatin and heterochromatin, nucleolus and ribosome structure (brief).  
Unit 4. Cell Membrane and Cell Wall          (Ch 7 Campbell / Ch 15 Sheeler / Ch 3 Raven)            (8 Periods) 
The functions of membranes; Models of membrane structure; The fluidity of membranes; Membrane proteins and their functions; Carbohydrates in the membrane; Faces of the membranes; Selective permeability of the membranes; Cell wall
Unit 5. Cell Cycle: Interphase, Mitosis and Meiosis    (Ch 12, 13 Campbell) (8 Periods)
Role of Cell division; Overview of Cell cycle; Molecular controls; Meiosis    
  
SUGGESTED BOOKS 
1.  Campbell, N.A. and Reece, J. B. (2008) Biology 8th edition, Pearson Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco.  2.  Raven, P.H et al (2006) Biology 7th edition Tata McGrawHill Publications, New Delhi   3.  Sheeler, P and Bianchi, D.E. (2006) Cell and Molecular Biology, 3rd edition, John Wiley & sons NY    
LSPP 202 - BIOLOGY-2 Laboratory     Marks: 50
1. To study prokaryotic cells (bacteria), viruses, eukaryotic cells with the help of light and electron micrographs. 2. Study of the photomicrographs of cell organelles 3. To study the structure of plant cell through temporary mounts. 4. To study the structure of animal cells by temporary mounts-squamous epithelial cell and nerve cell. 5. Preparation of temporary mounts of striated muscle fiber 6.    To prepare temporary stained preparation of mitochondria from striated muscle cells /cheek epithelial cells using vital stain Janus green. 7. To prepare temporary stained squash from root tips of Allium cepa and to study the various stages of mitosis. 8. Study the effect of temperature, organic solvent on semi permeable membrane.  9. Demonstration of dialysis of starch and simple sugar. 10. Study of plasmolysis and deplasmolysis on Rhoeo leaf. 11. Measure the cell size (either length or breadth/diameter) by micrometry. 12. Study the structure of nuclear pore complex by photograph (from Gerald Karp)                

Semester V
Chemistry –V/ Comp Sc –V /Electronics-V
Paper 17
CHPT-505:   Chemistry of d-block elements, Quantum Chemistry and Spectroscopy
THEORY          Marks: 100
Section A: Inorganic Chemistry-3       (30 Lectures)
Unit 1: Transition Elements (3d series) General  group trends with special reference to electronic configuration, variable valency, colour, magnetic and catalytic properties, ability to form complexes and stability  of various oxidation states (Latimer diagrams) for Mn, Fe and Cu. Lanthanides and actinides: Electronic configurations, Oxidation states, colour, magnetic properties, lanthanide contraction, separation of lanthanides (ion-exchange method only). 
Unit 2:Coordination Chemistry Valency Bond Theory (VBT): Inner and outer orbital complexes of Cr, Fe, Co, Ni and Cu (coordination numbers 4 and 6).  Structural and stereoisomerism in complexes with coordination numbers 4 and 6. Drawbacks of VBT.  IUPAC system of Nomenclature. 
Unit 3:Crystal Field Theory Crystal field effect, Octahedra symmetry.  Crystal field stabilization energy (CFSE), Crystal field effects for weak and strong fields.  Tetrahedral symmetry.  Factors affecting the magnitude of ∆. Spectrochemical series.  Comparison of CFSE for Oh and Td complexes, Tetragonal distortion of octahedral geometry.  Jahn-Teller distortion.  Square planar coordination. 
Section B: Physical Chemistry-4       (30 Lectures)
Unit 4: Quantum Chemistry & Spectroscopy Spectroscopy and its importance in chemistry. Wave-particle duality. Link between spectroscopy and quantum chemistry. Electromagnetic radiation and its interaction with matter. Types of spectroscopy. Difference between atomic and molecular spectra. Born-Oppenheimer approximation: Separation of molecular energies into translational, rotational, vibrational and electronic components.  Postulates of quantum mechanics, quantum mechanical operators. Free particle. Particle in a 1-D box (complete solution), quantization, normalization of wavefunctions, concept of zero-point energy.  Rotational Motion: Schrödinger equation of a rigid rotator and brief discussion of its results (solution not required). Quantization of rotational energy levels. Microwave (pure rotational) spectra of diatomic molecules. Selection rules. Structural information derived from rotational spectroscopy. Vibrational Motion: Schrödinger equation of a linear harmonic oscillator and brief discussion of its results (solution not required). Quantization of vibrational energy levels. Selection rules, IR spectra of diatomic molecules. Structural information derived from vibrational spectra. Vibrations of polyatomic molecules. Group frequencies. Effect of hydrogen bonding (inter- and intramolecular) and substitution on vibrational frequencies. Electronic Spectroscopy: Electronic excited states. Free Electron model and its application to electronic spectra of polyenes. Colour and constitution, chromophores, auxochromes, bathochromic and hypsochromic shifts.
Unit 5: Photochemistry Laws of photochemistry. Lambert-Beer’s law. Fluorescence and phosphorescence. Quantum efficiency and reasons for high and low quantum yields. Primary and secondary processes in photochemical reactions. Photochemical and thermal reactions. Photoelectric cells.  
Suggested Readings 
Section A: 1. J. D. Lee : A new Concise Inorganic Chemistry, E L. B. S. 2. James E. Huheey, Ellen Keiter and Richard Keiter : Inorganic Chemistry: Principles of Structure and Reactivity, Pearson Publication. 
Section B: 1 Barrow, G. M. Physical Chemistry Tata McGraw-Hill (2007).  2. Castellan, G. W. Physical Chemistry 4th Ed. Narosa (2004).  3. Mahan, B. H. University Chemistry 3rd Ed. Narosa (1998).  
CHPP-505: Chemistry Laboratory     Marks: 50
Section A: Inorganic Chemistry 
1. Estimation of the amount of nickel present in a given solution as     2. Bis(dimethylglyoximato) nickel(II) or aluminium as oximate in a given solution gravimetrically.  3. Estimation of (i) Mg2+ or (ii) Zn2+ by complexometric titrations using EDTA.  4. Estimation of total hardness of a given sample of water by complexometric      titration.   5. To draw calibration curve (absorbance at λmax vs. concentration) for various concentrations of a given coloured compound and estimate the concentration of the same in a given solution.  6. Determination of the composition of the Fe3+ - salicylic acid complex / Fe2+ - phenanthroline complex in solution by Job’s method.  7.  Determination of concentration of Na+ and K+ using Flame Photometry.     
Section B: Physical Chemistry
1. Potentiometric  measurements     
a. Strong  acid  with  strong  base      b. Weak  acid  with  strong  base      c.   Mohr’s  salt  with  potassium  dichromate    2. Conductometric  measurements.   
a. Determination  of  the  cell  constant.    b. Study  of  the  variation  of  molar  conductivity  of  a  strong  electrolyte  (KCl)  and  of a   weak  electrolyte  (acetic  acid)  with  concentration.               Conductometric  titrations  for  the  following  systems   
      (i)  strong  acid  -  strong  base    (ii)  weak  acid  -  strong  base     
3. Kinetic  studies   
  Study  of  the  kinetics  of  the  following  reactions  by  integrated  rate  method:   
a.  Acid   hydrolysis   of   methyl   acetate   with   hydrochloric   acid,   volumetrically   or   conductometrically      b. lodide-persulphate  reaction.  
Suggested Readings
1. Vogel’s Qualitative Inorganic Analysis, A.I. Vogel , Prentice Hall ,7th Edition. 2. Vogel’s Quantitative Chemical Analysis, A.I. Vogel , Prentice Hall ,6th Edition. 3. Senior Practical Physical Chemistry, B.D.Khosla, R. Chand & Co.  
CSPT 505:  Computer Networks
THEORY          Marks: 100
Basic concepts  : Components of data communication, standards and organizations
Network Categories  : Area Networks (LAN, WAN and MAN), Network Relationships (Client-Server, Peerto-Peer), Network Topologies (Bus, Ring, Star, Mesh) 
Layered Communication Connectivity  : Fundamentals of Layered Connectivity, OSI and TCP/IP Models, comparison of models, Network Addressing – Physical and Logical Addresses
Physical Layer  : Cabling, Network Interface Card, Transmission Media
Devices- Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateway
Data Link Layer : Framing techniques; Error Control; Flow Control Protocols;
Shared media protocols - CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA. 
Network Layer  : Virtual Circuits and Datagram approach, IP addressing methods – Subnetting; Routing Algorithms (adaptive and non-adaptive)
Application Layer  : Application layer protocols and services - DNS, HTTP, WWW
Network Security  : Common Terms, Firewalls, Virtual Private Networks 
BOOKS RECOMMENDED:
 [1] A.S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 4th Edition, Pearson Education. 
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. B.A. Forouzan: Data Communication and Networking, 4th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill. 2. D.E. Comer, Internetworking with TCP/IP, Vol. I, Prentice Hall of India 3. W. Stalling, Data & Computer Communication, Maxwell Macmillan International Edition. 4. D. Bertsekas, R. Gallager, Data Networks, 2nd edition, Prentice Hall of India.   
CSPP-505- Computer Networks Lab.      Marks: 50
PRACTICALS BASED ON CSPT-505   

ELPT – 505: Communication Electronics
THEORY          Marks: 100
Introduction : Block diagram of an electronic communication system, modulation and demodulation, electromagnetic spectrum band designations and applications. Waveform spectra and effect of filtering on complex signals. 
Analog Modulation: Amplitude Modulation: Frequency spectrum of AM waves, average power, average voltage, modulation index, AM-modulator circuits (collector modulation),  AM-demodulator (diode detector), single side band generation and detection.
Angle Modulation: Frequency and phase modulation, frequency spectrum of FM waves, intersystem comparisons (FM and AM),  FM generation and detection
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM).
Transmitters and Receivers: Communication channels for AM and FM broadcast, AM and FM transmitter, tuned RF receiver, Superheterodyne receiver. 
Pulse Analog Modulation: Sampling Theorem and Nyquist Criterion. Pulse Modulation: pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), pulse width modulation (PWM) and pulse position modulation (PPM). Time division multiplexing (TDM).
Digital Communication: Block Diagram of a PCM system, Qualitative description of noise in PCM systems, concept of  ASK, FSK, PSK. 
Introduction to Modern Communication Systems: Satellite Communication, Fibre Optic System, Cellular Telephone System
Suggested Books:
1. Analog and Digital Communications, H. Hsu, Schaum’s Outline Series, Tata McGraw-Hill. 2. Electronic Communication, L. Temes and M. Schultz, Schaum’s Outline Series, Tata McGrawHill. 3. Analog and Digital Communication Systems, M.J. Roden, Prentice Hall of India. 4. Communication Systems: Analog and Digital, R.P. Singh and S.D Sapre, Tata McGraw-Hill. 5. Communication Electronics, Principles and Applications, L.E. Frenzel, Tata McGraw-Hill. 6. Electronic Communication Systems, G. Kennedy and B. Davis, Tata McGraw-Hill. 
ELPP – 505 Electronics Laboratory     Marks: 50
5.1 To study AM - Generator and Detector circuit
5.2 To study FM  - Generator and Detector circuit
5.3 To study AM Transmitter and Receiver 
5.4 To study FM Transmitter and Receiver
5.5 To study Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
5.6 To study Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
5.7 To study Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
5.8 To study ASK, PSK and FSK